Post by oldmike on Jun 28, 2007 18:20:54 GMT 7
Unknown to many, throughout the history of human development, China, as one of the ancient civilization of the world made exceptional achievements in natural science and engineering technology. The Singapore Science Centre is proud to present China: 7000 years of innovation that showcases these exemplary areas where the Chinese have been pioneers in.
Amazingly, the scientific discoveries and technological inventions made by the Chinese covered many disciplinary fields. Eleven areas, namely astronomy, compass, gunpowder, printing, mechanics, architecture, weaving, ceramics, pepermaking, bronze casting and traditional Chinese medicine have been chosen for this exhibition. They represent the cream of ancient Chinafs achievements in science and technology.
Some highlights are featured here but you can see it all, and prepare to be amazed by more astounding exhibits at the Science Centre!
1. Astronomy
China is one of the first countries in the world to have started astronomical researches. Documents indicate that as far back as some 4,000 years ago during the time of the legendary Emperor Yao, special officials were appointed to take charge of the observations of the astronomical phenomena. As the society progressed astronomy developed rapidly in ancient China. In the area of astronomical observations, there are written records dating from the 16th century BC about sunspots, comets, meteors, novas, the sun, the moon and five of the planets, as well as star catalogues, star charts etc. Rich in content and continuous in chronology, some of these records are the earliest of their kind in the world. In the fields of astronomical theory and instruments, the ancient Chinese established the famous theory of cosmography and invented such brilliant astronomical instruments as the armillary sphere and the simplified armilla. In calendrical science, the proto-calendar came into being in China between the 16th century and the 11th century BC. which, having been improved and perfected through the ages, is still being used today. This calendar is a unique solar-lunar calendar which takes into account the tropical year as well as the synodical months.
2. Weaving and Embroidering
Sericulture and silk weaving were first originated in China. Some 6,000`7,000 years ago the Chinese already knew how to weave with fibers of hemp and kudzu vine as raw materials. Pattern weaving and "braid embroidery" emerged in China in the 16th century BC (the Shang Dynasty). After the 2nd century BC (the Western Han Dynasty) and with the invention of silk reeling machine, spinning wheel, oblique loom and jacquard loom, the techniques of weaving and embroidering rapidly improved, making it possible for the Chinese to produce gauze and leno as thin as a cicada's wings, as well as brocades of colourful designs. China hence enjoyed the reputation of "the Oriental Country of Silk" in the world. During the long period from the Han Dynasty to the Tang Dynasty, the Chinese silk products were traded to the Middle and West Asia and Europe via the famous Silk Road, having a far-reaching influence on the world civilization and constituting an important part of the world heritage of science and culture.
3. Compass
Compass is one of the four great inventions of ancient China. In the ancient Chinese books dating back to the Warring States Period there are numerous records of "Sinan", which literally means the "south governor" and is in essence the world's earliest compass. From such records we can see that as early as at that period of time, "Sinan" was already invented in China and used by its people for indicating directions. The "Sinan" of the Han Dynasty was composed of a piece of natural lodestone carved in the shape of a ladle and a square bronze plate representing the earth. In the Song Dynasty a new kind of compass using the method of artificially-induced magnetism came into being and was widely used in sea-faring. It was on its basis that "Luopan", a mariner's compass combining the magnetic needle and the directional pan was invented. During the Song and the Yuan dynasties such compasses were used for navigating ships. With the aid of compass seafarers gradually explored and established ocean navigation routes which they called "needle routes". A certain navigation route or shipping course was connected together by many different "needle points" (compass points) which actually were seamen's records of the directions of islands and seaports passed on the voyages. Also in the Song Dynasty magnetic declination was discovered by Shen Kuo, whereas in the West it was not until some 400 years later that Christopher Columbus made the same discovery. During the 13th century the use of magnetic compasses was gradually spread to various Asian and European countries, contributing tremendously to the developments of seafaring, economy, trade and culture throughout the world.
4. Paper Making
Invented by the Chinese people in the Western Han Dynasty, paper making is one of the four great inventions of ancient China. In AD 105 (the Eastern Han Dynasty) and by improving the paper making technique prevailed among the people, Cai Lun successfully produced a large quantity of paper suitable for writing out of tree bark, rags and worn-out fishing nets, thus greatly facilitating the development and promotion of the paper making technique. The appearance of paper as the incomparable and only best carrier of written records overshadowed all previous writing materials such as bamboo slips and silk. Its invention was an epoch-making revolution in the history of human civilization. After the 7th century the Chinese paper making technology was gradually spread to Korea, Japan, the Arabian countries and the European continent.
5. Printing
Printing as one of the four great inventions of ancient China was first invented in the 7th century (the last years of the Sui Dynasty and the outset of the Tang Dynasty). In the mid-11th century (the Song Dynasty) Bi Sheng again invented movable types printing. Since then a complete printing process of type founding, typesetting and printing came into being. What appeared soon afterwards were such techniques as process printing and woodblock water-color printing etc.
The invention of printing has played a significant role in the dissemination and development of human. Around the 8th century the Chinese printing technology was spread to Korea and Japan. Before long it was transmitted to the Arabian region with its influence reaching as far as Africa and Europe.
6. Ceramics
China is one of the cradles of human knowledge. During the Neolithic Age of some 10,000 years ago and in their long-standing practice of using fire, our ancestors discovered the fact that clay, after being baked in high temperature, has the property of agglomeration. As a result they became the first people in the world to have created and used earthenware.
In the 16th century BC and with the improvement of baking techniques, the ancient Chinese succeeded in baking a kind of "proto-celadon porcelain". During the Eastern Han Dynasty (AD 25`AD 220) the ancient Chinese craftsmen successfully produced the first fine porcelain in what is today's Zhejiang region.
The invention of porcelain did not come overnight, but rather was a reward the ancient Chinese had after pacing up and down in the long river of historical development for thousands of years. From pottery to porcelain to both pottery and porcelain keeping pace with each other, this has been the basic feature of the development of ceramics in China.
From celadon porcelain to white porcelain and then to colour porcelain, the development of porcelain in China has experienced several stages. Artistically the Chinese porcelain has reached a very high level, making it possible for the industry to continuously weed through the old products in order to bring forth new ones.
The invention of porcelain in China fully demonstrates the great creativity of the Chinese people, it is also one of the Chinese nation's outstanding contributions to the world civilization.
7. Bronze Casting
As early as some 4,000 years ago our forefathers were already able to make bronze wares. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties bronze casting reached its peak in the 12th century BC the Si Mu Wu Ding, a bronze quadripod weighing 832.83 kilograms, was successfully cast in China. At the site of the Tonglushan ancient copper mine, which dates back to the Spring & Autumn and Warring States periods (the 8th century`3rd century BC) and was discovered in southeast Hubei Province, more than 400,000 tons of bronze slag left over from ancient times are still piled up there today. Under the ground of the mine place is a densely dispersed network of ancient mine shafts and tunnels. Over a long period of production practice the Chinese people developed a complete technological process of mining, smelting, mould-making and casting, realized the properties of bronze alloy, and, according to different demands, were able to use different alloys to produce various kinds of bronze wares, including sacrificial vessels, weapons, musical instruments, production tools and articles for daily use. The mastery of bronze casting technology by the Chinese led to the creation of a splendid bronze culture and paved the way for the increase of productivity, the further development of culture and art, and above all, China's entry into the iron age.
8. Gunpowder
Gunpowder is one of the four great inventions of ancient China. During the late period of the 8th century and the early part of the 9th century and on the basis of alchemy practiced in the previous dynasties, our ancestors already came up with the rudimentary formula of making black gunpowder with sulphur, saltpeter and charcoal as the basic ingredients. In the 10th century gunpowder began to be used in making weapons. Compendium of the Most Important Military Techniques (Wujing Zongyao), a military encyclopedia written by Zeng Gongliang in the 11th century, contains records of the formulas for three different kinds of gunpowder. The development of firearms experienced three different stages, namely, combustion and explosion firearms, jet firearms and tubular shooting firearms. Wu Bei Zhi, a classic military work of the Ming Dynasty, records a variety of rocket-type weapons, such as parallel rocket, multiple-firing rocket, retrievable rocket and two-stage rocket etc. In moderns times gunpowder is used worldwide for peaceful purposes and great progress has been made in this regard. In such fields as mining, water conservancy, transportation and civil engineering gunpowder is also widely applied. Being the first country in the world to have utilized the recoil resulted from the fast burning of gunpowder to propel rockets, China actually pioneered the utilization of jet propulsion in modern aeronautic and astronautic flying machines.
9. Mechanics
As one of the first countries in the world to have invented mechanical devices, China in ancient times made a great number of inventions and innovations in the field of mechanics. In terms of the utilization of power and the designing of mechanical structure, China also has its own unique features. Shadoof was invented in China sometime between 770BC`476 BC. Motive force step by step shifted from manpower and animal power towards the utilization of such natural force as hydraulic power and wind power, resulting in the gradual extension of the ways of mechanical transmissions. Starting from the Eastern Han Dynasty gears of different shapes and uses were widely applied in such mechanical devices as the geared water-powered mill, south-pointing chariot, odometer and so on. Some of the Chinese inventions even held a safe lead in the ancient world. The invention of mechanical devices had forcefully pushed forward the productivity in ancient China.
10. Architecture
The Chinese ancient architecture is a valuable legacy in the world treasury of architecture. As early as 7,000 years ago, the Chinese invented the mortise and tenon structure. In the long process of development, a traditional architectural system gradually took shape which is mainly characterized by the style of wooden structure framework and coupled with ramming, the bracketing system, stone carving, arch and brick-and-stone work. The unique structural form and artistic style of this system are all embodied in the construction of civil residences, towers, tombs, grottos, palaces, temples, ancient pagodas, gardens, bridges and irrigation works.
For thousands of years the traditional technology of ancient Chinese architecture, which is mainly characterized by the style of wooden structure framework, has come down along a continuous line and developed a school of its own, occupying an outstanding place in the history of architecture of the world.
11. Traditional Chinese Medicine
With a history of more than 5,000 years, traditional Chinese medicine is a rich treasure house. The Yellow Emperor's Canon of Internal Medicine (Huangdi Neijing), China's earliest and most comprehensive extant treatise on medicine, was compiled during the Warring States period (before 221 BC). In the Han Dynasty Zhang Zhongjing wrote the Treatise on Febrile and Other Diseases, the first medical work containing a fairly thorough description of theory and clinical experience. Li Shizhen, an outstanding pharmacologist of the Ming Dynasty, spent 27 years completing his Compendium of Material Medical. The theoretical and clinical standpoints of the two medical giants contributed significantly to the development of medical science and the systematization of medical theory. In traditional Chinese medicine, which is noted for its dialectical way of diagnosis and treatment, diagnosis is done by means of the "four examinations" to observe (the complexion and fur on the patient's tongue), smell (the odors given off by the patient when talking, breathing or coughing, and the smell of his excreta), ask (about the condition of the patient), and feel (the patient's pulse). In the areas of acupuncture, massage, qigong and bone-setting traditional Chinese medicine has its unique treatments and ways to keep fit. In the field of traditional Chinese pharmacology the Chinese medical scientists have made in-depth researches into and recorded in details the property, efficacy and usage of over 3,000 kinds of medicinal materials from botanical, zoological and mineral sources. Chinese pharmacy provides not only decoction but also ready-prepared medicines in the form of pills, powder, electuaries and pellets. Traditional Chinese medicine and pharmacology have contributed significantly to mankind in their fight against diseases and their improvement of health.